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2024-03-07 17:52:16

拉丁语中的“城” - 知乎

拉丁语中的“城” - 知乎首发于Carpe Diem切换模式写文章登录/注册拉丁语中的“城”bonaὃ γέγραφα, γέγραφα.希腊语中通常只用πόλις/polis（复数poleis，中译“城邦”）来表示“城”，而不考虑不同poleis之间在人口多寡、疆域大小、政治制度、法律地位等方面的差异：小到不足千人，大到几十万人的城邦都称作polis；无论实行民主的雅典，还是贵族制的斯巴达，甚至僭政的叙拉古，一律称作polis。一部希腊史就是一部希腊各城邦历史的总和。（ἄστυ/asty[城堡/高地]和ἀκρόπολις/akropolis[卫城]无法单独用于表示“城”，例如罗马七座山丘的希腊语表达就是ἄστυ ἑπτάλοφον/ásty heptálophon）在拉丁语里，有若干词表示“城”，这与意大利半岛的历史密切相关：古代意大利的历史不是意大利半岛各城邦的历史，甚至也不是Latium地区各城邦的历史（罗马起初不过是Latium的一个城邦），而是从很早起就变成唯一的城邦的历史，也就是罗马城的历史，用拉丁语说就是ab urbe condita（建成以来史），或者希腊语urbs κατ' ἐξοχήν。拉丁语中对“城”的不同称谓反映的是罗马人的视角，称谓的内涵随罗马的扩张而改变，尝试梳理如下（中译名不是讨论重点）：Urbs“大城”。某一地区或国家的核心城市，即“都城”，比如叙拉古和特洛伊都可称为urbs。在拉丁文献中，绝大多数情况特指罗马城。urbs既是物理意义上的“城”，也表示一个政治单位，还暗示城市生活方式和习俗，从中引申生urbanus（英语urban）一词。oppidum“小城”。oppidum的基本含义是“栅栏”，这个义项始终没有消失，例如跑马场的围栏称作oppidum；其次，oppidum指防御设施，进一步指由防御设施围起来的区域，也就是“堡垒”。堡垒通常建在高地上，而周围的疆域是pagus（村落）或ager（平地）。oppidum和pagus构成古代意大利半岛定居点的两个基本要素。oppidum在危险时刻为pagus提供保护，pagus则为oppidum提供生活资料，两者相互依存。由于人口聚集，oppidum逐渐获得“城市”特征，而不再是“堡垒”，这个词从而获得它的第三个含义——城。oppidum大概是拉丁语中最古老的表示“城”的词，仅指物理意义上的城，不具有政治含义。同盟者战争（前91-89）后，意大利半岛基本完成罗马化，municipium和civitas取代oppidum成为表示“城”的专门术语，而oppidum变成一切具有城市特征的定居点的总称。“围栏”是oppidum的核心要义，没有围栏也就不成其为oppidum。urbs（罗马城）以oppdium为原型而建，同样地，“城墙”是urbs的核心要素，建城始于建墙；这里的“墙”既可以是实际的军事防御设施，也可以指虚拟的界限，把urbs从政治和宗教意义上同外部世界区隔开。在文献中，只有一处用oppidum指罗马城（Livius 42,20,3: decemviri lustrandum oppidum...，十人团宣布，这座城必须举行净化仪式）。civitascivitas指由所有civis（公民）组成的共同体，在这个意义上，对应希腊词polis。populus Romanus（罗马公民）也称作civitas Romana，后一种表达不常用，且civitas后起。civitas常用来指非罗马的公民共同体（“城”），依据同罗马的关系分为三类：civitas foederata（订立盟约的城）：同罗马订立有书面盟约，规定战时出兵数量等内容，享有完全的自治，包括授予公民权、流放本城公民的权利、铸币权和司法独立。外交方面则必须听命于罗马。civitas libra或civitas sine foedere（免交税赋的城或未订立盟约的城）：未订立书面盟约，同盟关系可由罗马元老院（和人民）单方面解除。civitas stipendiaria（交纳税赋的城）：罗马元老院（和人民）可单方面解除同盟关系。（civitas也可以指抽象的公民权，对应的希腊词是πολιτεία/politeia）municipium源自拉丁语munus（义务），municipium指须对罗马尽义务（兵役和税赋）的城市，起初指意大利城市，后来也用来指称意大利以外行省中的城市。municipium按照是否享有罗马公民权分为三类：cum suffragio：有完整的罗马公民权，即有选举权和被选举权，公民编入罗马部落（tribus）。最迟到前322年，Tusculum获得完整罗马公民权，成为最早的municipium cum suffragio。sine suffragio：没有罗马公民权，在内政和司法方面享有自治权，Caere是其中最早的城市。丧失公民权的罗马公民被编入Caere公民名册（tabulae Caeritum）。（praefectura）sine suffragio：无罗马公民权，又称praefectura，由罗马派出的行政长官（praefectus）进行管理和审判，行政长官代表罗马裁判官（praetor）行使职权。civitas和municipium的含义在很大程度上重叠，通常可以互换。colonia定居点或“殖民地”。指在通过战争夺取的土地上建立的“城市”，为了达到控制敌人、获取商业利益或为无地农民分配土地的目的，很少在无人居住的土地上建立。主要分为两种形式：colonia civium Romanorum：由（自愿或挑选出来的）罗马公民建立的定居点，需要经过罗马元老院批准。定居者保留罗马公民权，早期由罗马管辖，后来实现自治，尤其是远离罗马的定居点。colonia Latina：罗马公民和拉丁人共同建立的定居点，同罗马结盟。定居者丧失原有公民权，成为定居点的公民。这种定居点通常享有完全的自治，外交上则高度依赖罗马，一般情况下不可与罗马人通婚或签订贸易合同。公元二世纪以后，罗马帝国内城市之间的差异缩小，罗马化程度越深，城市间差异越小，因此colonia和municipium的区分变得不那么显著，civitas逐渐取代两者成为最重要的表示“城市”的拉丁词。最后，顺带提一下，res publica（公共事务）无法表示物理意义上的“国家”或“共和国”，civitas则可以表示物理意义上的城邦（国家）。因此，可以说civitatem expugnare（占领城邦），但不能说rem publicam expugnare。此外，civitatem evertere（摧毁城邦）指杀光或迁移某个城邦的公民，rem publicam evertere（摧毁共和国）则是指改变旧制度引入新制度，比如奥古斯都创立元首制。题图：庞贝城遗址（来源wiki）编辑于 2019-01-26 22:12拉丁语罗马史古典学赞同 2068 条评论分享喜欢收藏申请转载文章被以下专栏收录Carpe Diem「Per Angusta Ad Augus

Civitas古典社会模拟是一个怎样的游戏？ - 知乎

Civitas古典社会模拟是一个怎样的游戏？ - 知乎首页知乎知学堂发现等你来答切换模式登录/注册网页游戏Civitas古典社会模拟是一个怎样的游戏？今天在微博上看到这个游戏的介绍，能不能有人给出更详尽的介绍呢？这到底是一个模拟的社会模型还是一个游戏？关注者63被浏览18,432关注问题写回答邀请回答好问题 11 条评论分享6 个回答默认排序知乎用户首先，请看Civitas Wiki给出的简介：CIVITAS是一个古典社会的抽象模型，时代背景大略选取于西汉-罗马时期。这个世界中的一切经济活动、政治环境以及其他因素完全由用户之间的互动形成，也就是说，这是一个非常开放的世界。在CIVITAS的世界中，没有任何NPC可以左右或限制用户的行为，一切源于你的选择，在这样纯净的、优雅的、

灿烂的古典时代中。需要指出的是，CIVITAS目前仍然在开发中，也就是说很多的功能仍然在完善中，虽然这会给你的体验带来一些不好的影响，但同时，每日上线发现新功能的惊喜和看着她一点一点长大的成就感也是无可比拟的。这是游戏的制作者——Boss（俗称褒姒）给出的介绍。不得不说，Boss确实是非常自恋的...但总体来看，这款游戏（先允许我这么称呼）确实基本完成了上述目标。除了尚未开放的政治模组，整个经济系统已经完备，具备了一定程度的模拟性。也确实有许多人乐在其中，种地开田、建立产业、招聘工人、倒买倒卖。但是，每个进入游戏的新人都会发现，在刚进入游戏之时，他真的如同襁褓中的婴儿，除了睁开眼睛看看世界，几乎什么都做不了。这便是这个游戏的尴尬之处——游戏性的缺失。每天能做的只有工作、吃饭和演讲，用不了5分钟的时间，而回报则遥遥无期——一款几乎没有激励和反馈的游戏，怎么称得上游戏呢？因此，每天有许多人加入，匆匆浏览之后便又离开。有趣的游戏那么多，何必在这个甚至连图形界面都没有的地方浪费时间？但仍有许多人沉浸其中，流连忘返，原因，正是在于模拟的真实与自由。在这里，我们可以尝试在RL中我们无法体验的事——管理资产、操纵市场、建立集团、创立书院、撰写新闻、倒买倒卖、开荒种田。在政治模组开放后，我们还可以拉党结社、投票选举、成立政府、制定法律。无穷无尽的可能性，正是这个模型最吸引人的地方。无论你称其为游戏还是模型，这都是一个蕴含着无限魅力的地方。熬过无聊的新人期，你会为这个模型的拟真性感到震惊。心动与否，不在于游戏，而在于你，在于你是否有一个热爱政治经济历史文化，想要一展雄才成就伟业的心。最后，Civitas目前还采用邀请制，想要体验游戏的朋友可以私信我要邀请码。我会帮助你熟悉整个模型，并资助你度过新手期。（话说给Boss说了这么多好话，应该问他要点奖励神马的...）= =刚回答完就发现楼上惊现Boss编辑于 2014-02-05 18:20赞同 2210 条评论分享收藏喜欢收起匿名用户已召唤Civitas的开发者~坐等他的回答~好吧那个@陈约翰就是了好不认真的回答…本人从Civitas上线第一天看到人人上的宣传而加入，中间AFK过一段时间，两个月前回归，到今天（2014.2.5）是Civitas324天（估计老人看到这段描述就知道我是谁了……），来简单说一下我对Civitas的看法：Civitas在我的心目中从来不算是一个“游戏”，虽然有不少人是这么认为的。在我的理解中，其对社会运行的模拟的分量远远超过了其娱乐性。简单来说，每一个用户都将是Civitas世界中的一个普通人，需要通过给其他用户打工或者自己的经营来获得收入，满足自己的各种消费，而整个Civitas世界的运行，包括生产、消费、教育等等都是由用户们的活动支撑起来的。由于开发进度的关系，目前世界的重心仍然在经济事务上，个人非常期待的政治和战争模组仍然是遥遥无期，不过即便如此，在经济事务中呈现出来的社会多样性已经足够让人眼前一亮。在此附上一篇由开发者写的官方宣传：http://www.soobb.com/People/civitas/Comments/39067/不定期补充……欢迎向本人索要邀请码~编辑于 2014-02-05 17:55赞同 227 条评论分享收藏喜欢

古典社会模拟游戏《CIVITAS》的历史是怎样的？ - 知乎

古典社会模拟游戏《CIVITAS》的历史是怎样的？ - 知乎首页知乎知学堂发现等你来答切换模式登录/注册游戏历史古典学古典社会模拟游戏《CIVITAS》的历史是怎样的？截止2018年5月6日，在civitas上已经是1875天。题主对civitas的很有兴趣，但对它的过去不了解，听说很多人都在怀念这个游戏，唔…有人愿…显示全部关注者53被浏览24,096关注问题写回答邀请回答好问题 37 条评论分享25 个回答默认排序杜子腾关注杜子腾撰写的洛阳简史说明：以下内容本人绝不保证其客观性，尤其是在其中内容涉及本狐狸自己时；由于事隔久远，部分记载难免有误，请其他知情的老妖怪看到本文时尽可能予以指正；由于经济史已经很难回忆和考证，本文内容以文化史为主；文中涉及日期一律使用civitas纪年；在本文中，当一名玩家头次出现时，会在名字后面打括号标注其ID。ID堪称是civitas中的居民身份证，也代表着此人是civitas世界的第几名玩家；本文开始撰写于西历2018年5月10日（D1879），如果本人懒癌不发作的话，相关考证顺利的话，有望在未来几日内完成。D1：神（约翰/boss/褒姒/眉毛神）创造了世界，创造了长安和罗马两城，并在京兆郡发布了第一条演讲。在后续的将来，神将会在这个世界里画下无数大饼、挖下无数坑，神的子民们，也将会在这里留下无数回忆。D3：（经过多次补坑后）神完成了第一个模组：演讲模组。D4：导师模组完成，c世界将开始拥有非直接神造的居民。D8：神为京兆郡和罗马创造了属县，亦即长安郊区和罗马郊区。D12：c世界居民开始拥有开辟不动产的能力。D24：神为他的子民创造了市场。D33~D37：神完成了住房和租房的模组，c世界的居民开始有房子住了。D38：c世界的居民开始饥饿（难以置信此前他们一直都处于吃饱了撑着的状态）。D60：神开始发布抄本模组。D61：神为他的子民们创造了酒类。D69：神为部分子民进行离经叛道的自我繁殖行为感到愤怒，在今天第一次猎杀小号，据称足有数十人被丢出了这个位面。D100：神创造了洛阳城和雅典城。————————历史开启了新的一页————————D100：玩家Saint.Infidel（150）来到洛阳城并发布了第一条演讲。截图为Saint.Infidel当日发布的演讲D100及稍后几日：nian（1593）、大蘑菇（1883）、牛和真菌（1813）、君未知战（2009）、肉丸君（1580）、Schian（1599）等一批移民从长安和罗马来到洛阳。大家最终选择在平城门街区抱团取暖定居下来。洛阳的第一批居民远不止前列的几位。和后来的居民一样，洛阳的早期居民们每人都在这里拥有着自己的故事，留下了自己的痕迹。本狐狸在这里无法将他们都罗列出来，谨在此向洛阳的早期开拓者们致敬。D103：Saint.Infidel开办了餐馆“观天井”，该餐馆很可能是洛阳的第一家餐馆（但是后来被本狐狸不小心玩坏了……）。D120：肉丸君名下集团创办了餐馆“洛阳丽春院”，成为洛阳人民花天酒地寻欢纵欲的首选去处。截至本文撰写的今日，该餐馆仍面向公众营业。D121：专注好人（1645）当选平城门第一位三老。D135：洛阳市的活跃人口突破200人。D141：故人（4194）出生了。D150：通过肉丸君提供的书局“洛阳晨报”出版社，Saint.Infidel在0o煌o0（3378）和风聆雪（3078）的协助编辑下，创办了洛阳的第一份日刊报纸《洛阳晚报》。D164：nian和陈某峰（1912）创立了集团“太平中京社”。在遥远的后来，太平中京社将会改名为“雅兰之家”，并在勤劳的管理层的不懈努力下（好吧众员工也是有功劳的），逐渐发展壮大。约D170：在经过苦心经营并收并了若干远古壕的资产后，肉丸集团迅速成为洛阳炙手可热的大集团，“肉半城”的名号开始在江湖上传播。D182：神创造了蜀郡。由于该地山高水远，此事对洛阳影响不大（或者有重大影响但本狐狸并不知道）。D194：杜子腾（12245）作为肉丸的第131名徒弟来到了c世界，其师兄Arryn（3689，人称A扒皮）后来透露道：“那天天际飘来许多七彩祥云，组成一个狐狸形状，有九条金龙盘旋其中；我家的狗连葵菜都不吃了，虔诚地仰望着天空，真是令人感动。”后来成为雅兰大魔王的妮可（4589）也回忆说：“那天我正在地里种小麦，突然天上好端端地下起了狐狸毛，结果刚种下的小麦立刻就发苗长穗了。到了傍晚七点的时候，麦粒已经一个个长到桃子辣么大了，真是可怕。”所以我记录的此前的c世界历史，都是本大人道听途说胡乱写出来的。D195：神创造了洛阳郊区——荥阳县，各大集团与广大市民纷纷投入到了郊区的建设中，雅兰集团更是全力投入到郊区的开发中去。D207：洛阳市的活跃人口达到500人。D213：Canoe（18871）来到了c世界。这个萌妹子和其他一些萌人一起，大大活跃了早期洛阳的氛围。截图为当年Canoe在广场发布的每日运势D219：牛和真菌和风聆雪创立了集团“洛神会”。D231：神开始实装教育模组。在技能卡门槛这件事上，c世界的居民开始全面展现出脸黑和脸红的区别。新建筑——学堂里面，也将在未来发生许多有趣的故事。D234：三三（21634）来到了c世界。当日洛阳上空遍布粉红色的云彩，充满了浓浓的少女心氛围。三三作为洛阳重要的文化人物，一生为洛阳的文化建设作出了突出的贡献，包括建立了神都图书馆，创办了独间文化出版社，创立了作为洛阳文化沙龙的QQ群“废纸协会”等等。三三还帮助神进行了一小部分civitas的开发，被大家爱称为“褒姒的小棉袄”。D248：沉寂山风（23003）出生了。D249：由于在开发郊区的同时伴生的一些矛盾，肉丸集团和雅兰集团双方发生了一场嘴炮大战，市场上的酒类脱销。D261：肉丸集团阵营的姜姜（5495）与雅兰集团发生了一些摩擦，双方互射了一通嘴炮后不欢而散。D264：出门左转掉坑（9152）举办了一次冷笑话大赛，评比方式出人意料，是以倒彩数减去欢呼数作为评分指标，结绳记事（16800）以一记撒狗粮演讲获得了冠军。但此后很长时间里，左转君都成为了洛阳的倒彩之王，日常被群众的倒彩顶上城墙。D275：神开始赋予食材以奢侈度的概念，为c世界居民的餐饮设计提出了更高的要求。D282：洛阳市的活跃人口首次并唯一一次超过800人。D283：肉丸集团和雅兰集团再次爆发冲突，双方的嘴炮重点逐渐转移到街区建设上来。当晚，肉丸集团将其在平城门街区的产业迁出，转入城区的金市街区。随后不久，洛神会集团将产业迁入城区的开阳门街区，雅兰集团则一直保持着对郊区的热情。至此，平城门主要只剩下一些散户和小集团，不再是洛阳的大聚居区，史称“平城门之变”。D295：神创造了南郡，一小批洛阳居民怀着创造的梦想远赴他乡开始了新的故事。D296：神开始发布监工模组，并在稍后开始注力于酒馆和竞技场模组的开发。竞技场模组的制作堪称是一个标志性事件，神在其中花费了相当长的时间和精力，并开始疏于c世界本身的更新。慢慢地，将逐渐会有越来越多的居民开始对c世界感到失望……但此时，洛阳尚处在一片繁荣之中。D298：沉寂山风创办了餐馆“风之谷”，广大市民纷纷前往体验吃风的感觉。D303：broklin（19439）将平城门街区的散户组织起来，成立了“平城骑士团”。新生的集团百废俱兴，broklin为此时期的平城发展做出了重要的贡献。broklin后来又邀请了沉寂山风协助他管理集团，并和堪称c世界第一大集团的时光集团建立了战略合作关系。洛阳进入肉丸、雅兰、平城、洛神会四国鼎立的时代。值得一提的是，在神后来的新c开发项目里，broklin成为了神的美术总监。由于他忙于工作，后来平城骑士团的管理重任便落在了沉寂山风的身上。D324：公子旷来到了c世界。很快公子旷就在广场上发布了演讲话题“公子旷的历史扯着蛋”，向大家分享历史冷知识，每日一更或数更，并经年如一日地坚持着，成为洛阳广场一景。截图为公子旷发布的一条演讲。D340：ljiy369（22986）创办了个体餐馆“一品茶庄”，以近乎作死的服务精神为洛阳人民带来了物美价廉的餐饮，成为公认的良心餐馆。D352：神的新模组——竞技场开始第一轮内测，反响相对惨淡。由于较难上手，并且与原有的世界没有太大关联，只有很少数居民参与其中。D366：出门左转掉坑主持创办了报纸《河边社》，诙谐的风格引起了洛阳人民的热烈追捧。左转君平日里的演讲也是诙谐有趣，亦堪称当时的洛阳一景。截图为左转君观看过自己页面里的访客记录后脑补出的演讲D377：神举办了一场发布会，允许部分居民入场与其开展一次问答式交流。与会居民非常关心神画的各个大饼何时烙好、挖的各种坑何时补上，希望c世界能够火速更新越来越好，但神只是大谈特谈他的竞技场模组如何牛逼。D385：神实装了烹饪服务，食物加工职业的居民有了新的用武之地。D396：神为华夏居民创造了豆酱和咸鱼，丰富了人们的饮食生活。D400：号称“扳手指统计学家”的沉寂山风发布了系列抄本《洛阳住房人口普查》的第一卷，该系列抄本后来甚至远销亚历山大，受到歪果仁的热烈追捧。D405：杜子腾大人的师侄，观象山妖怪（35638）来到了c世界。该妖怪脑洞清奇，体胖弧长，胃大胆小，十步摔一跤，凭借着天然的呆萌体质，逐渐成为洛阳的吉祥物之一，每次出游长安、蜀郡等城都给当地居民留下深刻印象，以至于后来每有外地游客来洛，往往落地后第一句话就是：“妖怪，妖怪呢？！”截图为该妖怪独自居住的谷门街区D406：杜子腾出版了《杜子腾日记》第一卷，以出色的卖萌技巧俘获了读者老爷的心，系列抄本畅销书市十年。D421：神对副业模组进行了一些更新，现在农民、木工、海员和矿工都可以外出采集捡垃圾了，但是人们对频频发生的诸如从树上采到鱼、从土里挖出螃蟹等事件感到困惑不已。D452：故人以大无畏的作死精神从ljiy369手里接过了餐馆一品茶庄。D460：故人出版了新书《九曲歌》，一时洛阳纸贵，故人本人也成为洛阳一代偶像作家，甚至有风雅少年高呼着：故人太太我要给你生孩子！D464：神又画了一个饼，打算开发一个天气模组，于是在当日的零点十二分，c世界各地都升起了一轮明亮的太阳，引众人颂赞。但是截止至本狐狸编辑此条目的D1883日，该轮太阳仍没有落下。D494：主要源于神疏于更新，越来越多的人口离开了c世界。自D207后，洛阳的活跃人口首次跌破500人。D497：久久田（11244）突然来到了洛阳。久久田原本是蜀郡人士，据称在其出生之日，有天狗吃太阳的异象，群兽惊惧，百木凋零，天上划过几道巨大的闪电，在空中组成了三个大字：克老板。在出生后的短短一段时间里，久久田就在蜀郡接连克死了几任老板。最后该君只好离开蜀郡，周游华夏，并最终来到洛阳，选择在此处定居养老。D498：在洛神会集团短暂工作一天后，久久田由平城骑士团的管理沉寂山风收留。沉寂山风专门为他设计了一栋独特的别墅来镇压他克老板的体质，从而使自己免于被迅速克死。D508：自竞技场之后，神又不务正业地挖了一个新坑。就在这一天，神开放了大家进入美洲的通道。美洲相当于是一个副本，供大家体验当野人的感觉，和旧大陆没有实际关联。D523：杜子腾组织了第一届旅游观光团，带着一群小伙伴前往长安旅游，进行文（gou）化（da）交（mei）流（zi），受到了长安民众的热烈欢迎。D530：当日清晨，在洛河畔捕鱼的渔民捞到了一条金光灿灿的大鲤鱼，剖开之后发现鱼腹中有一条布帛，上书：嘉日天到此一摸。下午，一个叫兮嘉（41315）的家伙出生了。兮嘉这个踊跃作死的新人，为此时逐渐消沉的洛阳注入了一丝活力。D547：在杜子腾大人旅居长安期间，Arryn任劳任怨地帮助前者出版抄本。回洛后，杜子腾特地修建了一座建筑“扒皮祠”，以表达对Arryn的感谢。截图为洛阳名胜扒皮祠D548：dudu（4188）在广场上发表演讲，宣城“愿意捐资1000粉用于奖励出版新书”，久久田和杜子腾分别抱着凑热闹的心态提出了申请。约D550：洛神会集团的管理层突然集体神秘狗带，洛神会集团开始陷入瘫痪。D550：在受到500粉资助后，杜子腾决定设立“嘟嘟文化奖”，以30天作为评选周期来评选、表彰对洛阳文化做出贡献的居民。杜子腾自命为评选委员会主席，并开始招募评委。该评选总共举办了两届，随后因懒癌而殁，剩余资金归入洛阳文化基金会。以上截图为嘟嘟文化奖的部分奖状。当时的所有奖状都由评选委员会的特约乙方公子旷制作，在此再次致谢之。D550：久久田成立了出版社“洛阳文化基金会”。在之后的一段时期，久久田用该书局撰写了大量新书，并向公子旷、兮嘉、观象山妖怪等人签约邀稿，出版了大量作品。洛阳进入一个回光返照式的文化繁荣时期。约D584：洛神会的相当一部分建筑已经倒塌，此时原洛神会员工小夕（30517）怀着对集团的深切情感，毅然决定背负起管理集团的重任。不过小夕没有坚持太久，也心力交疲地狗带了……洛神会自从成为洛阳的历史名词。D652：在久久田的被动技能的长期作用下，沉寂山风终于还是在这一天撒手人寰。由于另一管理broklin忙于新c的开发，无暇管理平城集团，平城集团自此实际落入华夏第一集团——时光集团的控制，名存实亡。D691：由于肉丸集团原有管理层早已陷入懒地死的状态，也迟迟找不到接盘侠，肉丸集团已经长期疏于管理。在这天，肉丸君在某QQ群里找了一个声称愿意接盘的叫刘秀的人，胡乱把手里的账号塞到他手上，随即便与世长辞了，死因为长期酒池肉林荒淫无度而患上的脂肪肝并发的懒癌。在刘秀执政期间，肉丸集团的资源被肆意挥霍，矿产、住房纷纷倒塌，员工开始外逃。D723：由于生性讨厌傻逼，也对集团地产的荒废感到惋惜，忍耐不住的杜子腾联系了肉丸君，一分钟后刘秀被驱逐出了洛阳，杜子腾掌管了肉丸集团，史称“一分钟政变”。杜子腾上台后采取了以变卖家产为主的一系列措施，史称“杜子腾新政”。此时肉丸集团在华夏各地的贸易站也基本都已倒塌，成为一个没有存在感的小集团。约D723：同时期，在充分有力的管理下，雅兰集团始终平稳运营着，完全没有像其他三大集团一样出现各种问题，并仍旧维持着在华夏各大小城市的分部，把握着大量资源，逐渐成为华夏唯一能与时光集团比拟的大集团。D959：杜子腾大人觉得很无聊，又组织了一次（忘了这是第三抑或第四次了）洛阳观光团。由于奋力地把许多已经死掉的小伙伴从土里刨了出来，杜子腾大人竟然在这个凋敝消沉的时代组织起了多达八人的观光团，规模超前……D1000：在这样一个特殊而又无聊的日子，大家都在长安的广场上纪念着自己的civitas生涯。长安名媛曲奇和七七选择在这一天狗带，更增添了一种恍惚隔世的末日氛围。截图为杜子腾在D1000日发表的演讲D1341：杜子腾大人正式把肉丸集团改名为药丸集团。D1359：由于此前神允许人们花费一个古代遗产随意进行移民，在这一天，杜子腾大人动员了一批来自洛阳、长安和蜀郡的小伙伴，组织起了一次华夏观光团，周游西方，受到西方人民的殷勤招待。不过西方人真是穷啊………………啊不，我是说，西方人生活朴素…………D1448：杜子腾大人完成了西方游，只身回到了洛阳，而其他小伙伴几乎都……直接死在了西方……D1883：杜子腾基本完成了本简史的编写，而civitas的历史还将继续苟延残喘地进行下去……编辑于 2018-05-16 17:40赞同 2643 条评论分享收藏喜欢收起兮嘉深度遗忘，人工智障。关注在civ的群里看到有人提到题主的回答，不请自来。civ我也是zqsg地玩了几年，被褒姒伤透了心，也a了好几年了。civ其实是个很无聊的游戏，不过也可以有有聊的玩法，最初吸引我的是civ的抄本，抄本承载了一个城市的历史文化，并将其传承。看到题主的问题，我更加觉得抄本的设计可以算是本游戏为数不多的亮点之一。civ时期，我主要居住的城市是洛阳，但是也曾跟着小伙伴们一起游历东方几座大城市，civ后期褒姒开放移民我们甚至去西方玩了一圈。civ中每个城市都有自己的历史和特色，很难用几句话说清楚，不知道题主更感兴趣的是哪座城市？建议可以找到那个城市曾经开书局的大佬，让他帮忙维护一下抄本，你可以借阅了解。言归正传，为了回答这个问题，我特地跑去登了一下civ，找了一些记录相关历史的抄本，贴在这个回答里，很多抄本的作者已经不可考，侵删。civitas过去的一些小故事公民篇一、神的公民号是1，而有人的公民号是2二、公民号为2的名字出现在civitas源代码的最后几行三、你问我们是怎么发现的，就是闲的蛋疼四、很久以前有一个序列，1-12-121-121？（公民号序列）五、300-1000的公民都不见了，为什么，因为boss把数据库玩坏了boss篇一、第一次大规模倒彩事件是罗马五十日的蓬莱君，他被当时罗马活跃人口约六分一的人倒彩二、事情的起因是因为boss在罗马群里公开了他的库房，并且有人（boss）把这事告诉他了三、顺带提一句，boss至今还有看人库房的嗜好，比如前段日子翻出了亚达集团的工具数目并且公布在Q群。四、boss还有翻人站内信的好习惯，所以大家机密事情还是在群里说吧五、据传言boss的新模组是自动检测你的电脑，若有QQ.EXE,你的civitas将被封号（by 程序错误）六、boss喜欢挑拨各城市内乱然后看戏。七、boss喜欢说啧啧啧哈哈哈哈和哈哈哈哈哈哈哈哈哈以及 orz八、boss不喜欢剃胡子九、boss当年把自己代管的号的工资库房以一粉每天的价格租出去了，很快被人秒掉十、但是几分钟后奇怪的回来了倒彩篇一、罗马远古时代还有一个奥古斯都因为发了反对欢呼联盟的演讲而被倒彩，倒彩比例超过了五十日的蓬莱君二、不过据说那是被一个机油（？）集团集体倒彩的，具体真伪已不可考三、顺带提一句，boss可以看到是谁倒彩的。通缩篇一、罗马记忆中的第一次大通缩是罗马七十多日，具体原因是许多人小号被抓照成的市场恐慌情绪二、导师A君险些倒闭，因为某些不可告人的手段而起死回生三、那次的通缩使得产能价的概念开始动摇。雅典压力山篇一、两次新城的开放都与新人潮有一定的关系（九十二日和一百二十二日）二、雅典新城大家带的粉量及其不足，险些全城饿死并且因为物资匮乏带动了母城罗马的物价飞涨三、压力山的移民者们吸取了教训，带够了主量的粉，导致亚历山大一直通胀四、顺带提一句，亚历山大的移民居然导致了罗马的大通缩，在阿瓜AFK之后，工具价格也没有显著上升五、矫枉过正大概说的就是这样吧跳票篇一、仓库损耗的第一次公布的确切日期是罗马二十日二、第二次日期是在罗马八十日上下三、本来第一个新城是亚历山大，给erep众开的四、boss在很久很久以前给过我们一个计划书，关于今年完成的计划，十分宏伟五、如今除了活跃人数达到了，其他都没达到。六、记得据说今年暑假就开政（河蟹？）治的。七、但是有些东西不会跳票，比如一个新的坑我们的创意八、比如当机立断改掉了遗产价/小麦粉扣除快乐值，还有最后的新坑教新模组篇一、每一个新模组都是坑二、近期的鱼、货运就是很好的例子三、顺带一提，昨天洛阳到弘农出现了海难，貌似是C世界的第一起海难四、但是陆运为啥会有海难，因为boss玩坏了代码。五、以前boss说先开医疗再开海运六，你们懂得，要是真海难了就自求多福吧七、新模组的bug多多，比如第一次海运船是会变多的八、想起了当年的街区刻字，刚开的时候点削去和加深的结果都是加深九、其实boss知道是谁刻的字其他有的没的一、boss让新模组不坑的方法就是削弱旧模组二、信不信Q1小麦过段日子就被削弱了三、如果没有也别找我，我说说而已四、其实这里的东西都是我凭记忆写的，可能和曾经的事实有所出入五、boss说以后四维可以突破100，让你们说有粉没处花六、说到粉，其实罗马现在有四个玩意过剩的厉害，抄录运输市政和粉七、但是一个人拿1000粉和10000抄录你觉得哪个是壕，一般人都觉得是前者吧八、其实蓬莱有话要说九、今天就到这吧，以后有空我再写写。罗马简史D1 : 罗马诞生,神于京兆郡发了4条宣言。Achronidas为第一位演讲的罗马公民。D2 : 奥古斯都自立为执政官，引发了公民关于帝制的讨论。随后Achronidas 对自我的存在发表了见解。众公民对罗马的发展绘制了未来的蓝图，并立下了将要使罗马之言传至异域的壮志。D3 : 罗马迎来第9位居民，讨论转为实际发展，此时人口少于东方。D4 : 奥古斯都发表演讲称有朝一日将会征服异域，并统治一切。罗马公民也趋向于此观点，发动战争为罗马带来劳力。D5 : 导师系统开启。在理性的声音下，侵略之意略有缓解，转为了东西文化的交互。众公民坚信不疑——罗马之神将会令罗马最终强盛。D6：仓库系统完成。对哲学的讨论愈发深入，蓬莱酒首次提出“罗马公民皆为第一公民”的观点。奥古斯都则对演讲与报刊的区别做出了解释，指出演讲应富有哲理，不必冗长叙事。D7：市场开始建设，罗马进入农耕经济，天穹羽对倒彩的功能诠释为“无法忍受之宣泄方式”，并指出应团结一致对抗东方之敌。D8：神宣布不将给予神赐的精力，公民投入到了劳作之中,开始自立.从该日起罗马与诸神同在的时代结束,不劳而获成为历史。D9：神为罗马公民留下了古代的遗产,罗马公民转变成了真正意义上的人。将用自己的双手和头脑建立文明的辉煌。罗马人口正逐步接近东方。D10：公民们开始发掘遗产，神对东西方一视同仁，因而引发了发掘热潮。市场即将建成。出现第一篇指引罗马公民合理分配遗产的建议。罗马的演讲开始变为日常往事的交谈，甚至是身份混乱的喋喋不休。D11：Achronidas 重申罗马广场的作用：公民在此收集信息，思索哲理，交流观点，而不是展示疯狂，日常闲聊。色拉叙马雷斯提出了自己对著作《理想国》的见解，而奥古斯都则认为理想国即是自由而强盛的未来罗马。此日为已知的第一次将著作与civ罗马联系在一起的，公民参与的经典辩证。D12：Achronidas 指出罗马精神应是包容的，冷静的，理智的，真实的。奥古斯都认为罗马的部分演讲已经失去了意义，是不值得欢呼的。并提出建立布告栏、书信网络写下并传递对新罗马公民的指导与帮助。其思想初具报刊流动框架。大弛弛通过对不动产中工具的作用做出的更深的解释以及分析遗产中工具的稀有性，指出工具将会成为未来生产力中重要的因素。同日目前有据可寻的第一座不动产“比尔磨坊堡”建成。不动产开辟成为罗马新热潮，但因原料缺乏，则明显有力不从心之势。D13：大量建成不动产，罗马经济时代开始，经济链初有雏形。Achronidas 指出不应只发展劳力场所，也应注重建设公民的栖身场所等基础设施，此日是据载最早的演讲次数最多的一日，内容由丰富多样的哲学转向了实际发展的讨论。D14：公民憧憬着未来的罗马，广场上洋溢着喜悦之情。D15：罗马进入第一次招工热潮。人口首次超过长安[35人：33人]，Adward_R 提出希望——罗马不会有阶级分化和权力的独享，蓬莱酒在进行了赞同后提出开创福利业的建议。罗马首次由Adward_R 提出写作较为完整的新手指南。D16：当日，众人一致反驳了奴隶制，而提出了：战争掠夺资源平等分配，财产私有，国家民主自由的罗马精神与物质建设蓝图。有小部分公民对数量日益上涨的演讲浏览表示力不从心。D17：公民统计了部分不动产门牌号。转运系统在不断的完善之中。奥古斯都提出私人地产应为罗马未来建成公共场所的规划保留土地资源。少部分公民认为一日应该被允许工作两次#可寻的第一位刷演讲者：北柒。D18：Achronidas开始推行“优先建成居住房屋”政策并同时开始收集公民个人资产情况已进行罗马未来建设的调整。罗马进入经济、基础设施全面发展阶段。#Be23n进入civitas第一日。D19：工资设置通常基于不动产产物，罗马还未有统一的市场流通物。第一篇新公民指南出自奥古斯都笔下，神给予了其遗产作为奖励。Gladius提出“元老院管理制”的政府管理制度，并解释了其关于任期、兵役制、推举制等详细内容。D20：April提出货币流通、公民娱乐的初概念，神表示将给予人们货币选择的自由。最早的小范围流通物为小麦。Adward_R 发表了继奥古斯都后第二篇公民指南。早早会开花在为因经济的繁荣而导致的招工信息多于睿智演讲的情况而感到忧虑，也应证了Achronidas的担忧。D21：人口增长速率过高的问题被公民热议，其中牵涉到的劳动力过剩问题成为焦点中的焦点，引发了对不动产建设，不动产私有制，工具使用问题的细化讨论。奥古斯都增加了产品产能表与产业链的部分计算结果到新手指南中，同日大弛弛撰写了一篇关于各种资源及不动产的转化关系的指南，罗马也因此进入了科学生产。D22：层出不穷的招工启事反映出了罗马产业的畸形和资源的过剩。D23：Achronidas指出了建设稳定经济的重要性。神赞扬了罗马公民的智慧——三份公民指南皆出自罗马。D24：罗马第一次明显衰退，长安人口于当日超过罗马，并且在工作人数与总产能上皆占优势。奥古斯都认为是广场世俗的喧嚣代替了原先的智慧的言辞致使罗马展现出庸俗的颓废。Achronidas提出了罗马没有公休日的概念。同日出现了可寻的第一次小麦粉私人交易。D25：因市场的部分开放，经济指数有明显上涨之势，公民倡导信息对称和平等互信的交易制度。D26：Dolley.Huang 提出公民应长从事同一项职业的观点并辅以了客观依据。市场定价问题仍处于商讨与平衡之中，愚以为是货币不统一造成的混乱。同日奥古斯都于自己的不动产下尝试使用石料、小麦、小麦粉，三种物品作为工资结算物。D27：Achronidas 悲观地描绘出了未来充斥着阴谋，欺骗与不公正的罗马景象。供需关系出现不平衡之势，市场利润与定价的不正常成为新的明显问题。D28：产能再次跌落。不动产过多，劳动力过少的经济结构的不可靠所体现出来的影响异常显著。同日每位公民都可以开始副业工作。D29：劳力市场开启，但其定价也缺乏合理性。Achronidas 提供了一组全黑白的技能/经验图标。#此日注意[凯撒的爹以未知原因而公开与神叫板，持续至D45。]D30：饮食功能在进一步的商讨之中。D31：此日引发了公民对“化学”及“生物学”存在意义的讨论。Achronidas 认为研究生物是为了让人更加了解自身。研究“万物化生之学”可以了解，改变手中之物的性质。D32：饮食真正融入了罗马人的日常生活中了。Cosmos 提出可用每人都用的木炭作为等价物[此时未有餐馆]。蓬莱酒提出应该使用生产不过快，消费不过剩的物品作为流通货币。D33：继续了流通货币选择的讨论，但因各怀己见：都想使用各自拥有的不动产产物作为货币使谈论并无实质突破。D34：虽然大家基本同意使用工具作为货币，但依然有人提出反对，Be23n 提出：货币应不使用会被城市日常运作大量消耗的经济建设必需品，且货币本身生产不应牵涉过多产业链，消耗过多产能。D35：Achronidas 因持有的使用粮食作为货币的观点引发了蓬莱酒的数据上的反驳。此日Be23n 通过市场上鲜有提供使用工具交易货物的现象指出工具发行量过少的问题使其本身不具备成为良好市场流通物的资质。D36：神给予了公民“自食其力”的权力。罗马公民开始食用食物。缺乏木炭的问题开始展现。奥古斯都开始在其私有不动产下使用小麦粉作为工资结算物，以方便雇工更快更方便地吃饭。D37：奥古斯都认为工具因其繁复的生产工序并不适宜作为货币，旁同了Be23n 的观点，并加以了补充：应采用粮食谷物作为媒介。蓬莱酒放下个人成见也同意了该观点，但也指出了其可能的不足：消耗量大，并以此提出了使用主、辅币的概念。D38：众人基本同意工具是良好的过渡货币，但不是良好流通货币。讨论转为了使用原木还是粮食作为货币。以此开展了第一次平和的商谈。D39：罗马公民迫于饱腹而奔于生计。D40：饥荒降临于罗马，当日人口即将突破100。D41：困于生计，略有对未来罗马可能的专制暴政而感到担忧。第一家餐馆诞生。劳动力异常短缺并将长期保持此状态。D42 ：生存的忙碌消除了广场上哲人的演讲。唯有解决生存问题，国家才能壮大，文明才能强盛，思想才能深邃。Be23n 表达对未来存在贫富差距的担忧。蓬莱酒再次于D15之后提出了福利业的建设问题。D43： Achronidas 成为了继奥古斯都后调整所有其私有不动产工资为0.01小麦，使用统一结算制的第二人。并提供了为雇工开放的免费餐厅。Be23n开始提供短期的粮食贷款。D44：众不动产主基本牺牲利润，提高工资来变相资助雇工并以发放福利给所有新公民的方式稳固社会、经济结构。D45：私有不动产产业链的中断与不稳定成了不动产主的心中之痛，其根本原因脱离不了员工的流失而这可以进一步说明罗马其劳动力流动性大的社会结构问题依然未得到解决。D46：Adward_R 提出多不动产主产业链的整合初概念. Achronidas 指出解决劳动力流动性大的问题应首先从雇工福利开始解决.D47：制约罗马的问题之一就是粮食产量问题,民以食为天,但在罗马粮食却异常短缺,众人颇有回到农业经济时期的罗马的意愿。D48：多了些展望，少了些失望，带走了绝望。D49：充斥着生理的活力，却少了些智慧的活力。D50：公民首次提出罗马的公益福利应是以提供稳定的工作岗位与工资并且不影响市场规律为基础的。工资问题得到了较为浅显的讨论。张tony 提出了“生产力决定社会和谐度”；“个人劳作是自身在社会的基础 ”的双观点。D51：正如之前罗马先人所担忧的,社会阶级的分化,贫富差距的拉大所导致的问题第一次尤为严重地爆发了,起因根据记载是工资问题。新公民对资产储备充裕的农场主(主要以农场为创造经济单位）深藏以久的仇富心态转成了猛烈地抨击，甚至有人在未经同意的情况下公布了其中一位农场主的资产。其带来的反思无疑是深刻的，引用ProfessorSoul 的话来说：“仇富的根本是不患寡而患不均。”对财富的不均衡的怨恨由攀比心理造成，因而只能缓解矛盾而无法彻底消除矛盾，福利业只是一个弹性很大的缓冲。财富的积累只能依靠自身的能力，优胜劣汰，唯有适应当前较为公正的财富获取方式才能在当前罗马社会中生活下去。#作者对事情起因有稍有不了解，如有补充请与Lithesh进行联系。D52：余波未平，农场主蓬莱酒率先做出改变，致力于改善员工生活，虽然仍是以能更多赚取劳动力来盈利为目的，但仍不失为一大进步。继昨天的社会结构争论，罗马的社会形态遭到了热议，针对于资本主义社会结构、奴隶制度形态，原始的财富积累方式等诸多罗马特性，众人不知无法分类。有罗马公民发现罗马永远风和日丽，深表不解。大弛弛与早早会开花签下了罗马第一份公开的合同。D53：出现了第二份合同，公民对变故后罗马社会的人际发展的和谐程度有了高度的赞扬。蓬莱酒根据其交易经历和市场调研公开建议罗马应该全面采用粮食作为流通物。Missionsmay 提出了想要在工作之外狩猎，采集的愿望。david203812 提出使用古代遗产作为计算单位，尽管该建议是一种不具有较高可靠性的方案，其观点大部分也是错的，但仍不妨碍我们明白通用计算单位的重要性。D54： Achronidas 开始实行单方面的乌托邦实践，他提供罗马公民无限的免费餐饮，却只依靠罗马公民自身的社会道德水平和节制能力来维持这种状况，其思想是超前的。不动产进入了交易系统的体系中，更加完善了交易体系。同日洪昊扬发表了如下演讲：“罗马人！我们爱好美丽的东西，但是没有因此而至于奢侈；我们爱好智慧，但是没有因此而已至于柔弱；我们把财富当做可以适当利用的东西，而没有把它当做可以自己夸耀的东西。至于贫穷，谁也不必以承让自己的贫穷为耻；真正的耻辱是不择手段以避免自己贫穷。”这段演讲完全可以作为罗马公民的座右铭用以激励自己，不向任何挫折言败，平和地对待个人得失，保持自身的道德修养和良好的生活习惯。D55：奥古斯都强烈地表达了对无意义欢呼地厌恶，结果显而易见，众人用34个倒彩表示了对奥古斯都的不满。讨论分为了：奥古斯都的完全赞同派，蓬莱酒的完全反对派和众多公民代表的较为中肯派的三派人。此次讨论只是罗马建城长期以来对演讲欢呼功能的不同意见的延伸。#黑鹰坠落Irene 于此日成为罗马公民。后文暂时缺乏资料。——来源罗马新月集团雷米转赠cd君其他还有一些抄本截个图纪念一下吧，懒得贴了编辑于 2018-05-08 10:29赞同 2020 条评论分享收藏喜欢

Civitas | Origins, Government & Decline | Britannica

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奇维塔斯

在历史上罗马，在拉丁文项CIVITAS（拉丁语发音： [kiːwɪtaːs] ;复数civitates），根据西塞罗在后期的时候罗马共和国，是社会机体cives，或公民，法律统一（concilium coetusque hominum jure sociati）。法律将他们联系在一起，一方面赋予他们责任（munera），另一方面赋予他们公民权利。协议（concilium）有它自己的生命，创造了一个res publica或“公共实体”（与 civitas 同义），个人出生或接受，死亡或驱逐出境。 civitas 不仅仅是所有公民的集体，它是将他们绑定在一起的契约，因为他们每个人都是一个公民。[1]

Civitas是从civis形成的抽象。Claude Nicolet [2]将罗马公民的第一个词和概念追溯到第一个已知的实例，该实例源于罗马王国传说中出现的罗马人和萨宾人的同义词。根据李维的说法，[3]两国人民参加了一个联合仪式，之后他们以萨宾镇的治愈者的名字命名为 Quirites。这两个团体成为第一个curiae，即下属议会，来自co-viria（“同胞议员”，其中vir是“人”，因为只有男性参与政府）。 Quirites 是共同的病毒。两国人民获得了一种地位。 Sabine Quirites 的拉丁语是cives，在一项分析中，它来自印欧语*kei-，在现任、同一家族成员的意义上“躺下”。City、civic、civil都来自这个词根。可以说，两个民族现在在同一个屋檐下。[4]

Civitas在古罗马是一个流行和广泛使用的词，在现代有反应。几个世纪以来，该用法扩展到更大的拉丁词典引用的一系列含义：[5]除了宪法规定的公民身份之外，它还可能意味着合法的城邦或 res publica，即 res publica 的平民（不是作为人的人，而是作为公民的人），任何城邦，无论是真正的还是类似国家的，甚至是理想的，或者（主要是在帝国之下）实体城市或城市。在最后一个含义下，一些地方采用了名称，civitas，或将其合并到他们的名称中，后来的 civita 或 civida 作为反射。

随着帝国的发展，罗马外围省份的居民要么被归类为dediticii，意思是“投降者”，要么被视为附庸国，通过条约保证一定的独立性。罗马统治下的土著自治社区分为三类：最高的，civitates foederatae（“同盟国”），由正式独立和平等的城市组成，并由共同条约（foedus）密封；接下来是civitates liberae（“自由国家”），它表示已被罗马授予特定特权的社区，通常以税收豁免的形式（因此liberae et Immunos);最后一个，也是迄今为止最常见的群体是civitates stipendariae（"朝贡国"），它们在保留其国内法律自主权的同时有义务纳税。

马西利亚和梅萨纳等享有盛誉且具有重要经济意义的定居点是罗马共和国时期被占领地区获得半自治权的例子。在第二次布匿战争期间，马耳他岛被授予这一地位，作为对罗马忠诚的奖励。这些客户端部落的新罗马拼音的城市住区也被称为civitates并且是通常接近重新创建一个老，前罗马资本的部位。例如，在赛伦塞斯特，罗马人利用最初负责监督附近部落oppidum 的军事基地创建了一个 civitas。

军事文凭或成功服兵役证书，授予退役士兵及其当时陪伴的家属公民身份。关键短语是“est civitas eis data”，其中civitas 的意思是“公民身份”。

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| CIVITASShare your contentBecome a Member City!image/svg+xmlimage/svg+xmlHomeOur workAbout CIVITASBecome a MemberThematic areasActive mobilityBehavioural change & mobility managementClean & energy-efficient vehiclesCollective passenger transport & shared mobilityDemand & urban space managementIntegrated & inclusive planningPublic participation & co-creationRoad safety & securitySmart & connected mobilityUrban logisticsCoordinationContactCIVITAS CommunityCitiesProjectsAMIGOSDECARBOMILEDISCOELABORATORGEMINIGREEN-LOGMOVE21REALLOCATESCALE-UPSENATORSPINESUMULaaDSUNCHAINUPPERURBANECIVINETsCIVINET .BECIVINET Czech and Slovak RepublicsCIVINET Deutscher SprachraumCIVINET Greece-CyprusCIVINET IberiaCIVINET ItaliaCIVINET NederlandCIVINET PolskaCIVINET RomaniaCIVINET Slovenia-Croatia-SEEMagyar CIVINETYouthPolicy Advisory CommitteeReplication and Deployment ProgrammeNews & EventsNewsEventsCIVITAS Forum 2024NewslettersLearning & ResourcesLearning CentreTool InventoryResourcesE-PublicationsMobility solutionsSearchSave the date! CIVITAS Forum 2024The CIVITAS Forum 2024 will be held from 1-3 October 2024, in beautiful Parma, Italy. More information to come!Become a CIVITAS Member City!Join 380+ other cities across Europe that are committed to making sustainable and smart mobility a reality for all.An event-filled Spring is on the wayWarmer months are ahead, and that means a calendar full of exciting, sustainable mobility events. 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Civilization

Contents

Definition

by Joshua J. Mark

published on 16 August 2022

Available in other languages: French, Portuguese, Spanish, Turkish

Harappan Civilization (Artist's Impression)Amplitude Studios (Copyright)

Civilization (from the Latin civis=citizen and civitas=city) is a term applied to any society which has developed a writing system, government, production of surplus food, division of labor, and urbanization. The term is difficult to define because not all 'civilizations' include every one of the above facets. The term is often used, therefore, to suggest a highly developed culture.

The first civilizations include:

Indus Valley Civilization: c. 7000 to c. 600 BCE

Mesopotamia's Sumerian civilization: c. 6000-1750 BCE

Egyptian civilization: c. 6000-30 BCE

Although the Göbekli Tepe civilization (c. 10000 BCE) and China are sometimes included in this list, the above were already well-established by the time of China's prehistoric Xia Dynasty (c. 2070-1600 BCE) and its cities, while the people of Göbekli Tepe seem to have been semi-nomadic and moved on after building the site. Others, such as the Minoan, Mycenaean, and Gandhara civilizations, all formed after China's Xia Dynasty.

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At the same time, China highlights the difficulty of defining 'civilization' as there were already permanent settlements (though not 'cities') along the Yellow River by 5000 BCE. Mesopotamia, as the site of the Fertile Crescent, is famously known as the 'cradle of civilization' which saw the rise of the first cities, but this designation was made prior to the identification of the Indus Valley Civilization in 1924-1925 or the discovery of Göbekli Tepe (first recorded in 1963) in 1994.

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The construction of cities has always been considered a primary requirement for a culture to be regarded as a civilization.

Even so, Mesopotamia is still regarded as the birthplace of civilization as the people who built Göbekli Tepe are thought to have been semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers and the Indus Valley Civilization did not begin constructing its great cities until the Mature Harappan Period (c. 2800 to c. 1900 BCE) whereas the city of Eridu in Mesopotamia was founded c. 5400 BCE and the oldest cities in Egypt date to c. 4000 BCE. The construction of cities has always been considered a primary requirement for a culture to be regarded as a civilization even if it lacks a writing system (as in the case of the Inca) which is also understood as a central civilizing attribute.

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Civilizations developed from hunter-gatherers who first established semi-permanent and then permanent communities after settling into an agrarian lifestyle and began to produce surplus food. An abundance of food meant that not everyone had to work the land to eat, and so a division of labor was established with people working different jobs and purchasing food by that work, for example, potters who would sell their ceramics.

Division of labor led to the production of surplus artifacts, which, along with food, could be offered in trade to other communities. Long-distance trade, it is thought, led to the development of writing systems in maintaining business agreements. The rudimentary form of government that had worked with a small community had, by this stage, become more highly developed and centralized and usually included a religious component, leading to the construction of temples and a written body of literature concerning the gods. All of these aspects taken together are, more or less, recognized as constituting a civilization.

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Concept of Civilization

The concept of 'civilization' as a state of cultural development superior to others – as the term is often used in the present day – was first developed by the Greeks. The historian Herodotus (l. c. 484-425/413 BCE) famously made the distinction between 'civilized' Greeks and 'barbarous' non-Greeks in his Histories, as noted by scholar Roger Osborne:

The word 'civilization' was first used in eighteenth-century France, but the western idea of a civilized society dates back to ancient Greece and Rome. During the classical period, Greeks began to see themselves as not just different from, but better than, other peoples. When Herodotus, writing in the mid-fifth century BCE, referred to 'the barbarians', this was really a shorthand term for non-Greeks; but by the time of Aristotle, a hundred years later, barbarians and barbarous nations could be defined by certain types of behavior – their treatment of slaves, a barter rather than money economy – that were frowned on by the civilized Greeks. Barbarians had, through their cultural habits, become lesser people than the Greeks, who were seen by themselves, and later Europeans, as the epitome of civilization. (3)

This became the prevailing view in the West and, in some scholarly and political circles, still is, but 'civilization' is no longer understood by anthropologists and scholars as a qualifying term suggesting one culture is better than another but, rather, to define what a 'mature culture' is. To this end, as noted, for a culture to be regarded as a 'civilization,' it should have developed:

a writing system

government

surplus food

division of labor

urbanization

Of these five, urbanization is often emphasized, as a 'civilization' cannot be nomadic. The establishment of cities is a central aspect of any civilization because a sedentary community is understood as the first step in the development of any of the other aspects.

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Göbekli TepeTeomancimit (CC BY-SA)

This is why, when this concept is applied to the people of the Göbekli Tepe civilization, they are not considered one of the earliest 'civilizations' because they were semi-nomadic. At a certain point c. 12000-11000 years ago, a pre-agricultural, hunter-gatherer society in the region of modern-day Turkey began forming permanent settlements and then worked together to build the structure known today as Göbekli Tepe (a modern-day designation meaning "Potbelly Hill" – the original name of the site is unknown). The purpose of Göbekli Tepe is undetermined – though most scholars believe it was a temple – as is the reason why it was buried and abandoned in antiquity.

Although this society did construct permanent housing, it seems it may have only been for the purpose of building Göbekli Tepe, and sometime after that had been accomplished, they moved on; it would be left to others to build the cities which would come to define 'civilization.'

Mesopotamia & the Rise of the City

Mesopotamia and its Fertile Crescent is known as the 'cradle of civilization' because it is understood as the first to develop the aspects one recognizes today as 'civilizing,' and this began in the region of Sumer. The term 'fertile crescent' was first coined by the Egyptologist James Henry Breasted in his 1916 work Ancient Times: A History of the Early World, where he observes:

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This fertile crescent is approximately a semi-circle, with the open side toward the south, having the west end at the south-east corner of the Mediterranean, the centre directly north of Arabia, and the east end at the north end of the Persian Gulf. (193-194)

The Sumerians, who lived in the region, invented or developed all five of the criteria for a culture to be regarded as a 'civilization' following the rise of the cities as well as

the concept of time

long-distance trade

domestication of animals

mathematics and astronomy

agricultural techniques and innovations

religious rituals

medical practices and texts

astrology and the zodiac

scientific thought and technology.

The Neolithic Age in the region (c. 7000 BCE) saw the development of animal husbandry and agriculture, which led to permanent settlements and the establishment of some rudimentary form of government and religion.

Sumerian Civilization, c. 4300 - 2335 BCESimeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-SA)

These cultural advances were furthered during the Chalcolithic Period (Copper Age, 5900-3200 BCE) and the Ubaid Period (c. 5000-4100 BCE), which gave rise to the first cities, and the urbanization process was then fully embraced during the Uruk Period (4100-2900 BCE). The earliest city cited by the Sumerians themselves is Eridu (c. 5400 BCE), although Uruk (c. 4500) and Ur (c. 3800) may have actually been inhabited earlier in some form based on archaeological evidence. By the time of the Early Bronze Age (3000-2119 BCE), Mesopotamia was "the most densely urbanized region in the ancient world" (Bertman, 201) and recognizable as a civilization. Scholar Paul Kriwaczek comments:

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With the city came the centralized state, the hierarchy of social classes, the division of labour, organized religion, monumental building, civil engineering, writing, literature, sculpture, art, music, education, mathematics and law, not to mention a vast array of new inventions and discoveries, from items as basic as wheeled vehicles and sailing boats to the potter's kiln, metallurgy and the creation of synthetic materials. And on top of all that was the huge collection of notions and ideas so fundamental to our way of looking at the world, like the concept of numbers, or weight, quite independent of actual items counted or weighed – the number ten, or one kilo – that we have long forgotten that they had to be discovered or invented. (20-21)

The aspects of civilization 'discovered or invented' by the Sumerians have come to help define the term in the present day. Orientalist Samuel Noah Kramer, in his History Begins at Sumer, lists 39 'firsts' originating in the region:

The First Schools

The First Case of 'Apple Polishing'

The First Case of Juvenile Delinquency

The First 'War of Nerves'

The First Bicameral Congress

The First Historian

The First Case of Tax Reduction

The First 'Moses'

The First Legal Precedent

The First Pharmacopoeia

The First 'Farmer's Almanac'

The First Experiment in Shade-Tree Gardening

Man's First Cosmogony and Cosmology

The First Moral Ideals

The First 'Job'

The First Proverbs and Sayings

The First Animal Fables

The First Literary Debates

The First Biblical Parallels

The First 'Noah'

The First Tale of Resurrection

The First 'St. George'

The First Case of Literary Borrowing

Man's First Heroic Age

The First Love Song

The First Library Catalogue

Man's First Golden Age

The First 'Sick' Society

The First Liturgic Laments

The First Messiahs

The First Long-Distance Champion

The First Literary Imagery

The First Sex Symbolism

The First Mater Dolorosa

The First Lullaby

The First Literary Portrait

The First Elegies

Labor's First Victory

The First Aquarium

Further inventions or innovations include the wheel, mass-produced bricks and ceramics, the map, the sail, possibly the dog collar, beer, the straw (used for drinking beer), cylinder seals and envelopes, epic poetry, and genres of literature.

Seal LockOsama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright)

As Kriwaczek notes, urbanization encouraged the rapid development of many aspects of civilization but had its downside as cities grew larger and natural resources diminished. Farmlands, necessary not only for produce used in trade but to feed the population, were steadily developed for housing and industry. The prosperity of the cities also drew the attention of others, who then moved against them in military campaigns of conquest. Ur, considered the largest city in the world between 2030-1980 BCE, fell to Elam c. 1750, ending the Sumerian civilization. Long before that happened, however, Ur – like many of the Mesopotamian cities – had used up its resources and was forced to import more goods from other regions. As this trend continued, the city became unsustainable and was abandoned by 450 BCE.

Other Civilizations

Urbanization – though not civilization – is understood to have spread from Mesopotamia to Egypt, but the Egyptians recognized the danger of overextending their cities. The central cultural value of ancient Egypt was ma'at – balance, harmony – ordained by the gods and personified in the goddess Ma'at. The Egyptians believed their region was the best on earth and had been given to them as a gift by the gods who had entrusted them to care for it. The Mesopotamians had a similar belief as co-workers with the gods to maintain order but had nothing comparable to the Egyptian ma'at.

The Egyptians, therefore, took greater care to control the size of their cities, preferring smaller urban centers to such a degree that historians and scholars up until the late 20th century often concluded that Egypt had no cities. The Egyptian civilization was able to avoid the fall and abandonment of cities by the specialization of urban communities. Unlike Mesopotamia, not every Egyptian city had a huge temple or industry requiring a seemingly endless supply of natural resources. Cities like Karnak and Thebes, Memphis, and Per-Ramesses were religious, political, or industrial centers, but others were maintained on a more modest scale.

Egyptian Memphis ReconstructionUbisoft Entertainment SA (Copyright, fair use)

Whether Mesopotamia influenced Egyptian civilization or vice versa – or they first developed independently – continues to be debated. It is possible both were influenced by another, often overlooked, in the Levant. The Palestinian city of Jericho is recognized as the oldest in the world, dating back to 9000 BCE, and featuring the first protective walls, an aspect of urbanization that would not be seen in Mesopotamia until c. 4100 BCE and in Egypt much later.

It is also possible the development of both cultures was influenced by the Indus Valley Civilization, which had established trade with both Egypt and Mesopotamia by the Early Harappan Period (c. 5500-2800 BCE). How these people may have influenced other civilizations is difficult to determine as their writing system, the Indus script, remains undeciphered. The Indus Valley Civilization exemplifies another aspect commonly associated with 'first civilizations' – the development of permanent settlements by rivers – as seen in Mesopotamia with the Tigris and Euphrates, in Egypt with the Nile, and in China with the Yellow River.

This same paradigm holds for any civilization no matter when or where it developed as the Olmec civilization of Mesoamerica (c. 1200 to c. 400 BCE), the Maya civilization (c. 1500 BCE to c. 950 CE), and the Inca Empire (c. 1425-1532 CE) all seem to have originated near fresh water. This is hardly surprising since water is a basic necessity for human life, and prehistoric hunter-gatherers also gravitated toward water sources.

'Civilization' is a term that remains loosely defined, and the modern Western understanding of that term is remarkably recent.

The Inca present an interesting challenge in defining 'civilization' as they never developed a writing system but were definitely a civilization. This is also true of the Moundbuilders of North America during the Archaic Period (c. 8000-1000 BCE), who had no writing system and whose cities do not seem to have conformed to the standard definition of 'city' as they were more large towns surrounded by the homes of the working class and, sometimes, a protective wall.

There is no evidence that the North Americans of Watson Brake (c. 3500 BCE) or Poverty Point (c. 1700-1100 BCE) or Moundville (c. 1100 to c. 1450) had any kind of writing system, but they were all part of the recognized civilization of North America. Cahokia (c. 600 to c. 1350) was the largest pre-Columbian city in North America, with trade established across the continent, a central government, surplus food supply, and division of labor – but no writing system. Even so, like the Inca, the indigenous peoples of North America are recognized as a civilization.

Conclusion

'Civilization' is a term that remains loosely defined, and the modern Western understanding of that term is remarkably recent. Up until the mid-19th century, no one even knew Sumer had ever existed outside of a mention in the Bible. Egyptian hieroglyphics and Mesopotamian cuneiform were not deciphered until the 1820s and 1850s, respectively, and the Indus Valley Civilization's city of Harappa was only discovered in 1829 and left unexcavated and undefined until 1924-1925. Prior to these advances, Western scholars considered Greece the 'cradle of civilization' whose culture was adapted and developed by Rome, but, in reality, Greece and Rome were latecomers in the development of civilization.

Athens AcropolisMark Cartwright (CC BY-NC-SA)

Many civilizations went unrecognized up through the 20th century, such as the African Kingdom of Zimbabwe, whose capital, Great Zimbabwe (c. 1100 to c. 1550), is understood today as an architectural masterpiece. The West African kingdoms, including the Yoruba with their capital at Ife (founded c. 500), were also ignored as they did not conform to the definition of 'civilization' as it was understood at the time. As more information has come to light, and long-held nationalistic and racialist narratives have been rejected, the definition of 'civilization' has changed and become far more inclusive. The five essential facets defining a civilization in the present day will most likely be modified and revised in the next 100 years as they have already been challenged and continue to be.

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